As mammalian cells undergo oncogenic transformation, they can exhibit amplifications, deletions, mutations, or translocations of DNA sequences and/or gains, losses, or exchanges of activator RNA sequences. Both the DNA and the RNA changes can be passed on to daughter cells, and both can increase by repeated occurence during neoplastic progression. But both are not equally reversible.

Reprogramming of chromatin by exchange of activator RNA molecules, whether involving isolated activator RNA molecules, isolated retrotransposons, or isolated cell nuclei, can alter a cell's transcription program toward normal. But correction of chromosomal DNA amplifications, DNA deletions, DNA mutations, or DNA translocations is more problematical.

It may be now possible to utilize activator RNA exchange therapeutically, since an activator RNA-induced program change may contribute to the control of a cancer cell even with an existing, or even permanent, DNA amplification, DNA deletion, DNA mutation, or DNA translocation.

De Carvalho S, "Effect of RNA from Normal Human Marrow on Leukaemic Marrow In-Vivo".

35. Kumar MS, Erkeland SJ, Pester RE, Chen CY, Ebert MS, Sharp PA, and  Jacks T.,
"Suppression of non-small cell lung tumor development by the let-7 microRNA family".

34. Frenster JH, and Hovsepian JA, “Models of Embryonic Gene-Induced Initiation and Reversion of Adult Neoplasms”.

33. Mayr C, Hemann MT, and Bartel DP,
"Disrupting the Pairing Between let-7 and Hmga2 Enhances Oncogenic Transformation".

32. Eder M, and Scherr M, "MicroRNA and Lung Cancer".

31. Johnson SM, Grosshans H, Shingara J, Byrom M, Jarvis R, Cheng A, Labourier E, Reinert KL, Brown D, and Slack FJ, "RAS is regulated by the let-7 microRNA family". Cell 2005;120:635-647.

30. Hovsepian JA, and Frenster JH, "Reprogramming as an Approach to Neoplasms".

29. Hochedlinger K, Blelloch R, Brennan C, Yamada Y, Kim M, Chin L, and Jaenisch R, "Reprogramming of a melanoma genome by nuclear transplantation".

28. Reilly KM, Tuskan RG, Christy E, Loisel DA, Ledger J, Bronson RT, Smith CD, Tsang S, Munroe DJ, and Tyler Jacks, "Susceptibility to astrocytoma in mice mutant for Nf1 and Trp53 is linked to chromosome 11 and subject to epigenetic effects".

27. Frenster JH, and Hovsepian JA, "Activator RNA Exchange during Interphase Chromatin Reprogramming".

26. Blelloch RH, Hochedlinger K, Yamada Y, Brennan C, Kim M, Mintz B, Chin L, and Jaenisch R, "Nuclear cloning of Embyonal Carcinoma cells".

25. Kuwabara T, Hsieh J, Nakashima K, Taira K, and Gage FH, "A Small Modulatory dsRNA Specifies the Fate of Adult Neural Stem Cells".

24. Mallory AC, Dugas DV, Bartel DP, and Bartel B, "MicroRNA Regulation of NAC-Domain Targets Is Required for Proper Formation and Separation of Adjacent Embryonic, Vegetative, and Floral Organs".

23. Takamizawa J, Konishi H, Yanagisawa K, Tomida S, Osada H, Endoh H, Harano T, Yatabe Y, Nagino M, Nimura Y, Mitsudomi T, and Takahashi T, "Reduced Expression of the let-7 MicroRNAs in Human Lung Cancers in Association with Shortened Postoperative Survival".

22. Sawata M, Takeuchi H, and Kubo T, "Identification and analysis of the minimal promoter activity of a novel noncoding nuclear RNA gene, AncR-1, from the honeybee (Apis mellifera L.)".

21. Hong Y-K, Foreman K, Shin JW, Hirakawa S, Curry CL, Sage DR, Libermann T, Dezube BJ,  Fingeroth JD, and Detmar M, "Lymphatic reprogramming of blood vascular endothelium by Kaposi sarcoma–associated herpesvirus".

20. Xie H , Ye M , Feng R , and Graf T, "Stepwise Reprogramming of B Cells into Macrophages".

19. Tanaka T, Tomaru Y, Nomura Y, Miura H, Suzuki M, and Hayashizaki Y, "Comprehensive search for HNF-1ß-regulated genes in mouse hepatoma cells perturbed by transcription regulatory factor-targeted RNAi".

18. Kanno T, M. Mette MF, Kreil DP, Aufsatz W, Matzke M, and Matzke AJM, "Involvement of Putative SNF2 Chromatin Remodeling Protein DRD1 in RNA-Directed DNA Methylation".

17. Katoh M, Shaw C, Xu Q, Van Driessche N, Morio T, Kuwayama H, Obara S, Urushihara H, Tanaka Y, and Shaulsky G, "An orderly retreat: Dedifferentiation is a regulated process".

16. Li L, Connelly MC, Wetmore C, Curran T, and Morgan JI, "Mouse Embryos Cloned from Brain Tumors".

15. Sleutels F, Zwart R, and Barlow DP, "The non-coding Air RNA is required for silencing autosomal imprinted genes".

14. Persengiev SP, Zhu X, and Green MR, "Nonspecific, concentration-dependent stimulation and repression of mammalian gene expression by small interfering RNAs (siRNAs)".

13. Cao X, Aufsatz W, Zilberman D, Mette MF, Huang MS, Matzke M, and Jacobsen SE, "Role of the DRM and CMT3 Methyltransferases in RNA-Directed DNA Methylation".

12. Iwakiri D, Eizuru Y, Tokunaga M, and Takada K, "Autocrine Growth of Epstein-Barr Virus-Positive Gastric Carcinoma Cells Mediated by an Epstein-Barr Virus-Encoded Small RNA".

11. Lanz RB, Chua SS, Barron N, Söder BM, DeMayo F, and O'Malley BW, "Steroid Receptor RNA Activator Stimulates Proliferation as Well as Apoptosis In Vivo".

10. Ji P, Diederichs S, Wang W, Böing S, Metzger R, Schneider PM, Tidow N, Brandt B, Buerger H, Bulk E, Thomas M, Berdel1 WE, Serve H and Müller-Tidow C, "MALAT-1, a novel noncoding RNA, and thymosin b4 predict metastasis and survival in early-stage non-small cell lung cancer".

9. Blume SW, Miller DM, Guarcello V, Shrestha K, Meng Z, Snyder RC, Grizzle WE, Ruppert JM, Gartland GL, Stockard CR, Jones DE, Jr, and Emanuel PD, "Inhibition of tumorigenicity by the 5'-untranslated RNA of the human c-myc P0 transcript".

8. Byrne JA, Simonsson S, Western PS, and Gurdon JB, "Nuclei of Adult Mammalian Somatic Cells are Directly Reprogrammed to oct-4 Stem Cell Gene Expression by Amphibian Oocytes".

7. Frenster JH, and Hovsepian JA, "Overshoot in Late Telophase for RNA Re-Programming of Mitotic Chromatin".

6. Prasanth KV, Sacco-Bubulya PA, Prasanth SG, and Spector DL, "Sequential Entry of Components of Gene Expression Machinery into Daughter Nuclei".

5. Bourc'his D, Le Bourhis D, Patin D, Niveleau A, Comizzoli P, Renard J-P, and Viegas-Pequignot E, "Delayed and Incomplete Re-Programming of Chromosome Methylation Patterns in Bovine Cloned Embryos".

4. Jain M, Arvanitis C, Chu K, Dewey W, Leonhardt E, Trinh M, Sundberg CD, Bishop JM, and Felsher DW, "Sustained Loss of a Neoplastic Phenotype by Brief Inactivation of MYC".

3. Luo Y, Kurz J, MacAfee N, and Krause MO, "C-myc Deregulation during Transformation Induction: Involvement of 7SK RNA".

2. Frenster JH, "Yeast RNA Re-Programming of Already-Active Mammalian Chromatin".

1. DeCarvalho S, "Effect of RNA from Normal Human Marrow on Leukaemic Marrow In-Vivo".

Further Topics in:  Euchromatin,  active DNA, and  RNA  ribo-regulators:

Links to Euchromatin Activator RNA Reviews:
Links to Euchromatin Activator RNA Research:
Links to Ultrastructural Probes of DNase I-Sensitive Sites:
Links to RNA as a Therapeutic Agent:
Links to Hodgkin Lymphoma Immuno-Pathology:
Links to Activated T-Lymphocyte Immunotherapy:
Links to Medical Systems Biology:

"Ultrastructural Probes of Active DNA Sites, and the RNA Activators of DNA".

For Further Information and Feedback:
E-mail: frenster@euchromatin.net